Global Financial Crisis in Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Global Financial Crisis in Context - Essay Example There is the general consensus across the globe that the 2007-2010 global financial crisis (GFC) is the worst to have hit the world economies ever since the famous Great Depression during the 1030s. To some this crisis has grown to be known as the Great Recession of the time. One of the notable effects of the recent global financial crisis was brought to the fore in terms of failure by the world’s key businesses, significant decline in the wealth among consumers, as well as massive financial commitments by the various governments. In the overall, the aforementioned effects culminated into significant reduction in the economic activities amongst nations. The said financial crisis has its cradle in the bursting of America’s housing bubble. In particular, this housing bubble experienced its peak during the 2005- 2006 period. Immediately afterwards, there was a general increase in the Adjustable Rate Mortgages (ARM) and subprime default rates. As it is put forward by Taylor and Akila, (2009), a resultant increase in incentives of loans for example, simple easy terms as well as long-term trend of increasing prices of housing. As a result, borrowers had been motivated to take difficult mortgages with the hope of being able to quickly refinance them at favorable terms. However, with the increasing interest rates, prices of housing began to drop although moderately during the 2006-2007 period in several parts of the United States of America. Consequently, refinancing became much more difficult. This provided the much needed impetus to the increase in foreclosures and defaults due to the expiry of the simple initial terms.

National Honors Society Essay Essay Example for Free

National Honors Society Essay Essay If I had the power to change three things in my school or community, I would obligate all high school students to take a culture and religion class to educate students about people’s various beliefs and customs. Secondly, I would encourage students to take higher level academic classes instead of just the basics. We would send students into freshmen classrooms to and inform them about the benefits of taking some of the tougher classes. At the the same time we are trying to erase some of the misconceptions about the upper level math and science courses. Finally, I would encourage hosting more community activities. Living in the age of globalization, it is crucial for schools to offer a class that teaches global culture, including as well as the beliefs of various ethnic and religious groups. Offering such a class would be a crucial improvement in our school. We all are aware of the importance of obtaining a good education and the highest degrees in the latest and best technologies. In preparation for that we take the hardest classes in school and try to get into the most illustrious college and learn, but, alas, we forget the most important aspect of life: ______. We always forget that what is even more important than understanding the world in which we live in and how it functions and its sciences, is understanding each other and how we as individuals functions based on our beliefs and culture. In the real word, disagreement arises from the inability to understand someone else’s approach to something, especially if they come from a different background than you. On a bigger scale, disputes between countries due to our lack of understanding of others and their customs can often lead to war. So much unnecessary conflict arises from our ignorance and lack of education we receive from school. Therefore, making such a class mandatory for all students would also indubitably trigger healthy relationships throughout the student body, instead of the stereotypical malice that currently flows around. Secondly, I would encourage the student body to take more challenging courses. In high school, we all think about having fun and making the most of these four years, especially during our senior year. Nonetheless, we fail to realize how valuable our time is in high school. How we spend this time determines what colleges we get entry to, what scholarships you receive, but also our future career. Students often surmise that the higher level math and sciences courses are only for  Ã¢â‚¬Å"nerds† and fail to realize the benefits, including how much money it will save them in college. Therefore, I would like to create a program where students who have taken theses higher level courses go around the school during the two-week period when everyone is choosing courses for the next year and discuss the benefits of taking classes such as AP Calculus, AP Biology, AP Chemistry, and AP Physics. Furthermore, this would also clear up some of the appalling misconceptions created about some of these classes. For instance, during a personal encounter I had with a student who I was helping with math homework, she asked what math class I was in. To which I replied, â€Å"I am taking AP Calculus†. She immediately replied with comments such as, â€Å"Why bother, it’s a waste of time. No one ever use Calculus in the real world except if you’re a rocket scientist.† Obviously, she made an illegitimate claim. I had to explain to her that, in fact, the type of math most applied in any career is calculus, as it helps solve 80% of real-world problems and much more applicable than algebra or trigonometry. Reasons and encounters as such is what motivates me to create such programs so students can benefit from them and make the most out of high school. Finally, I would encourage hosting more community activities. We already have a town square where we celebrate the first Friday of every month with a small carnival. But with our small community size and our extremely diverse population, we could host annual picnics where people bring traditional dishes, stage a mixture of cultural performances, and, overall, just have a good time with each other. This kind of exposure is very beneficial for everyone, especially employees and their colleagues. Not knowing about your colleagues and their entertainment and food preferences could create unnecessary problems. One might accidently comment or reference something that is offensive to their co workers creating a spark that could potentially ignite a fire. There are many changes that can be brought to the community and school that would be very beneficial. But if I had the power to change three things in my school or community, I would obligate all high school students to take a culture and r eligion class, encourage students to take higher level academic classes instead of just the basics, and I would encourage hosting more community activities.

Islamic Fundamentalism And Terrorism

Islamic Fundamentalism And Terrorism Introduction All religion preaches peace and brotherhood and Islam is no different. However, how do you justify the killing of thousands of innocents by the Islamic terrorists. Islamic terrorism is the common term for violence,[1] rooted on Islamic fundamentalism, and aimed at defending, or even promoting, Islamic culture, society, and values in opposition to the political, allegedly imperialistic, and cultural influences of non-Muslims, and the Western world in particular.  [1]   Today, it is global terrorism has come to fore of the world politics after terror attacks on World Trade Centre on 09 September 2001. While looking at the globosity of the phenomenon of terrorism, it has to be appreciated that before terrorist groups attain their national, regional or global stature the first begin the same at local levels. A consideration of the origins of various terrorist groups would indicate that the growth of the small groups into the national or supra national movements could have been attributed to, if not large measure, to the frustration of the people, with the inability of their governments to provide with the elementary justice, security and welfare. It is difficult to say at which point local terror groups joins hands with the other groups operating in the region to form supra national entities that can operate trans national boundaries. If concrete steps are not taken immediately with due foresight, terror menace can well become the the biggest threat t o mankind.  [2]   Varieties of Terrorism Fundamental conformist religious movements have been associated with terrorism in almost all parts of the world starting from Middle East, Africa, Central and South East Asia, China, Europe and US. It would be prudent to is necessary to study terrorism before further investigating the link between fundamental religion and the clinch of violence. Terrorism is difficult to define as one persons terrorist is anothers freedom fighter. Political violence can be of various types. There are various types of egregious political violence that are sometimes conflated. Certified papers on terrorism seldom define terrorism or distinguish it from supplementary forms of hostile political action, for example, guerilla movements, ethnic conflict or racial movements. Countries frequently trademark opposition/resistance/demonstrations as terrorist actions to disgrace and dishonor such movements. Ahmad (1998) offered a typology of five varieties of terrorism:- State terrorism. Religious terrorism. Criminal terrorism. Pathological terrorism. Political terrorism. There are different motives for these. Some highly visible expressions of terrorism can be thought of as spectacles of violence, media events staged to dramatize an issue by gaining the attention of the world. Terrorism acts as both a symbolic message and supposed means of social change aiming at political transformation. The terrorist act dramatically advertises the grievance to a larger community that may support their goals. Further, the pain and suffering inflicted is believed, at least by the terrorists, to avenge a prior injustice and/or attain the organizations goal.  [3]   Jehad The word Jihad links its origin to the Arabic word JHD, which means strive. Jihad in essence means the measures taken to practice religion even during the times of adversity in the face of oppression and persecution. In Arabic, the terms Mujahid/Mujahideen and jihad, are Islamic-derived terms indicating righteous struggle, and are commonly used to refer to what the Western world calls Islamic terrorists and Islamic terrorism. In the non-Muslim world, this usage is often considered to be inaccurate and giving religious glorification to murder, and Islamic terms like hirabis and Muharib have been promoted as alternatives when referring to terrorists. Islamic terrorism is itself a controversial phrase, although its usage is widespread throughout the English-speaking world. Ordinary Muslims who have nothing to do with terrorism find it reprehensible because it forces upon them a label simply because they, too, are believers of Islam. In fact, the common Muslim believes that you are making him a racial hate target by using the word Islam with terrorism. Bernard Lewis believes that the phrase Islamic terrorism is apt, because although Islam, as a religion is not particularly conducive to terrorism or even tolerant of terrorism  [4]  . In his own words:- Islam has had an essentially political character from its very foundation to the present day. An intimate association between religion and politics, between power and cult, marks a principal distinction between Islam and other religions. In traditional Islam and therefore also in resurgent fundamentalist Islam, God is the sole source of sovereignty. God is the head of the state. The state is Gods state. The army is Gods army. The treasury is Gods treasury, and the enemy, of course, is Gods enemy. This argument is countered by Jamal Nassar and Karim H. Karim, who contend that because there are over a billion adherents of the religion, the phenomenon is more precisely regarded as Islamist terrorism or, because describes political ideologies rooted in interpretations of Islam. In this vein, describing terrorism as Islamic may confirm a prejudicial perspective of all things Islamic.  [5]   Radicalisation of Islam As has been noted, modern Islamic political fundamentalism is the product of a desire by some Muslims to return to a pure faith in order to counter and overcome growing pressure from an increasingly westernized world. Identifying and analyzing these pressure points is essential to understanding the rationale behind the often violent expressions of Islamic political fundamentalism whose ultimate purpose is to bring individual, country and world under the sovereign reign of Allah. As has been noted, Islamic political fundamentalist movements are a twentieth-century development. Not surprisingly, the majority of these movements are of the Sunni variety. Of the 175 Islamic fundamentalist groups (mainly of the political variety) in the Arab world as identified by Dekmejian from 1970-1995, only 32 were Shiite fundamentalists (with an additional four having both Sunni and Shiite followers). The modern era radical clerics have interpreted the Koran to their advantage and have used it effecti vely to strengthen the military wing of Islamic fundamentalists and use terrorism as a tool against the non practitioners of Islam. Some clerics supporting the hard stand against non Islamic societies and nations are reflected in the subsequent paragraphs. Radical as part of his sermon one Friday in August 2004, the Palestinian Sheikh Abu Muhammad al Maqdisi told his followers, Cutting off heads is part of our religion. Indeed, by God, slaughtering Allahs enemies is part of our religion. It should be done in accordance with the interest of Islamic nations. In another article titled The Infidels will be Obliterated, the cleric Seif al-Din al-Ansari writes Allah made annihilating the infidels one of his steadfast decrees. According to (divine) natural law of alternating fortunes, Allah said (Allah will) obliterate the infidelsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.It inevitably follows that this wisdomà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.has become the way the life is to be livedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The (Koran) mentions his decree frequently, to the point that it makes you feel that it is truth of supreme importance. In another context, Shiekh Nasser ibn Hameed, an al Quaeda affiliated Saudi cleric, considers the permissibility of using the weapons of mass destruction to bring about the will of Allah. The sheikh concludes that, considering what Americans have done:- If a bomb was dropped on themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that would annihilate 10 million and burn their lands to the same extent that they burned the Muslim lands this is permissible with no need to mention any other proof. Yet if we want to annihilate a greater number, we need further proof  [6]   Creating an Ideology A century ago, Islam had the same Koran, the same Prophet Muhammad, the same stories about founding of the faith, and the same religious and the legal traditions. Yet there were no suicides bombers like Salah Ghandour, no incendiary leaders like Hassan Nasrallah, no militant sheikhs like Yousaf al-Qaradawi and no murderous conglomerates like Hamas and al Qaeda. And that there was not should give pause to all those who claim that Islam is, necessarily, a violent and destructive faith. To attribute todays problems to the essence of the religion is to commit a grave error of oversimplification. Islam is a grand tradition that has proven itself capable of sustaining many different cultures, philosophies, approaches to life and political arrangements. Since September 11, and to a lesser extent before, many authors have probed the history of Islam and the Arabs in search of the roots of extremism. One good place to start is the story from the recent past, the story of Sayyid Qutb, an Egypt ian writer who is described as the intellectual hero of every one of the groups that eventually went to Al Qaeda, their Karl Marxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ their guide.  [7]   Sayyid Qutb was born in Egypt in 1906. His early education was in the western system of education. After completing his studies, he took up the job of a teacher. He later became a novelist and a functionary in Ministry of Education, Egypt. In late 1940s he did his masters from Colorado. However, during 1930 to 1950, Qutb lost faith in the secular system and became a radical Islamist. On return from America, Qutb supported the Nassers secular revolution. Difference arose between Nasser and Qutb and later was imprisoned. It was during this time Qutb wrote some of his best known and influential work Milestone (a thirty volume commentary on Koran) and In shade of Koran. Qutb was latter executed by Nasser in 1966, giving Islam its earliest and most revered martyr. Qutb was influenced by Mawdudis writings but constructed a khariji-like revolutionary ideology. He stressed both Gods sovereignty and governance (hakimiyya) and the unity of God (tawhid) with the resulting unity in nature, rel igion, society, and state as the foundation of the integrated and comprehensive Islamic system. Qutb transformed the meaning of the Islamic term hijrah (emigration) from a simple description of the Prophets historic migration from Mecca to Medinah to signifying a definite stage in the development of all true Muslim societies hijrah is the response of true Muslims to the state of jahiliyya prevalent in their society. They must withdraw from society in order to create a vanguard of committed activists able to take over society when the right time comes.  [8]  Some of Qutbs interpretation of Jahiliyyah in his own words are as follows:- Islam cannot accept any mixing with Jahiliyyah, either in its concept or in the modes of living which which are derived from this concept. Either Islam will remain or Jahiliyyah: Islam cannot accept or agree to a situation which is half Islamic and half Jahiliyyah. The foremost duty of Islam in this world is to depose Jahiliyyah from the leadership of man, and to take the leadership into its own hand and enforce the particular (Islamic ) way of life. Indeed, people are not Muslims, as they proclaim to b, as long as they live the lier of Jahiliyyahà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Today th task f the call is to return these ignorant people of Islam and make them into the Muslim all over again. A person who feels the need of defence, justification and apology is not capable of presenting Islam to people. Indeed, he is a person who lives the life of Jahiliyyah, hollow and full of contradictions, defects and evils, and intends to provide justification for the Jahiliyyah he is in. These are offender against Islam.  [9]   Qutbs central mobilizing concept was a reinterpretation of Jahiliyya, and provided an ideology to military faction of Islamic leaders. Most terrorist Islamic groups today, derive their ideology from his writings. Interpretations of the Quran The role played by the Quran, Islams sacred text, in opposing or in encouraging attacks on civilians is disputed. Certain scholars such as Zakir Naik have said all Muslims should be terrorists in the context of war and fighting evils of society. When he was asked about the verse. Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies. [Quran 8:60] He replied. Every Muslim should be a terrorist. A terrorist is a person who causes terror. The moment a robber sees a policeman he is terrified. A policeman is a terrorist for the robber. A Muslim should be a terrorist for the Robber and all other anti-social elements. The Princeton University Middle Eastern scholar Bernard Lewis, states that Islamic jurisprudence does not allow terrorism. Professor Lewis notes At no time did the (Muslim) jurist approve of terrorism. Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism (in Islamic tradition). Muslims are commanded not to kill women, children, or the aged, not to torture or otherwise ill-treat prisoners, to give fair warning of the opening of hostilities, and to honor agreements. Similarly, the laws of Jihad categorically preclude wanton and indiscriminate slaughter. The warriors in the holy war are urged not to harm non-combatants, women and children, unless they attack you first. A point on which they insist is the need for a clear declaration of war before beginning hostilities, and for proper warning before resuming hostilities after a truce. What the classical jurists of Islam never remotely considered is the kind of unprovoked, unannounced mass slaughter of uninvolved civil populations that we saw in New York two weeks ago. For this there is no precedent and no authority in Islam. Indeed it is difficult to find precedents even in the rich annals of human wickedness. In 2007, Osama bin Laden, best known for the September 11 attacks, used quotes from the Quran-and a militant Taliban clerics interpretation of those verses-to justify his declaration of war on Pervez Musharraf and the Pakistani army, such as: O prophet! Strive hard against the disbelievers and the hypocrites, and be harsh against them. Their abode is hell, and an evil destination it is. [Quran 9:73] O you who believe! Take not the Jews and Christians for your friends and protectors: they are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you that turns to them (for friendship) is of them. Verily Allah guides not a people unjust. [Quran 5:51] And fight them until theres no fitnah (polytheism) and religion is wholly for Allah. [Quran 8:39] However, the interpretation of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban has been condemned by influential group of Pakistani scholars and religious leaders, who declared that suicide attacks and beheadings as un-Islamic in a unanimous resolution. Marmaduke Pickthall, a Western convert to Islam and an Islamic scholar notes that Nowhere does the Quran approve a spirit of revenge and situates verse 2:194 in the context of a defensive war. Ibn Kathir stated that the Quran clearly commands believers to prefer forgiveness over retaliation wherever possible. Michael Sells and Jane I. Smith (a Professor of Islamic Studies) write that barring some extremists like Al-Qaeda, most Muslims do not interpret Quranic verses as promoting warfare; and that the phenomenon of radical interpretation of scripture by extremist groups is not unique to Islam. According to Sells, Most Muslims no more expect to apply the verses at issue to their contemporary non-Muslim friends and neighbors than most Christians and Jews consider themselves commanded by God, like the Biblical Joshua, to exterminate the infidels.  [10]   Root Cause of Terrorism The Worldview of the Fundamentalist. It is obvious to mention that Islamic fundamentalism is caused by the actions of the fundamentalist. What we can ask ourselves is what drives these individuals to advocate fundamentalism? Several scholars have proposed that fundamentalists adopt a literal reading of the Quran. Consider the following verses:- And kill them wherever you find them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out. And Al-Fitnah is worst than killing. And fight not with them at Al-Masjid-al-Haram (the sanctuary at Makkah) unless they (first) fight you there. But if they attack you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the unbelievers (Surah Al-Baqarah). If one takes a literal reading of the above passage, then it is quite obvious that Muslims should kill non-Muslims where and whenever the former thinks that they are in a position to do so. Take for example Palestinians. Palestinians have been resettled to accommodate for the state of Israel, consequently displacing the former from their own homeland in the process. When seen within the light of the above verses, the perceived injustice suffered by the Palestinians would mean that Palestinians have every right to oppose the Israelis as well as their American benefactors. This is if a literal reading of the above verses is taken devoid of the context and historical circumstances that gave rise to such verses in the first place.  [11]   Islams Identity Crisis in Confronting Modernity. The historical inevitability and pain of transition to modernization/capitalism has been met with resistance and conservative religious leaders sees such forms as imperialism, colonialism, and the spread of neoliberal ideology. As conservative religious leaders struggled to deal with the advent of modernity, Islamic modernizers were more open. Indeed, these Islamic modernizers worked with secular nationalists and were better able to cope with modernity, using European models of socialism and capitalism for nation building and national development (Hossein-Zadeh, 2005). However, when socialism and capitalism failed to deliver for example, instances of poverty were rife; people were alienated from the system they were in; materialism and decadence prevailed in the capitalist system the disappointed masses of the Muslim world turned to the more radical message of Islam as Muslims especially those alienated and disaffected by socialist and capitalists models looked for an Islamic Alternative. This yearning signalled a desire to return to the state of Islam during its Golden Age. Conservative religious leaders thereby became the sources of mobilization and self-respect as the disappointed masses sought to return to the Golden Age (Hossein-Zadeh, 2005).  [12]   Socio-Economic-Political Factors. Islam is not a monolithic entity how Muslim states/Muslims relate to the non-Muslim other depends a lot on their socio-economic-political factors. For example, poverty and undemocratic regimes are significant factors that can contribute to Islamic militancy. In Aceh (Indonesia) and Mindanao (Philippines), marginalized Muslim communities suffer acute deprivation and alienation vis-vis the post-colonial state dominated by the ethnic and religious minority (Rahim, 2003). Additionally, given the lack of democratic mechanisms in these regions, there are no means for legitimate and sufficient political representation thereby making Islamists act subversively. Undemocratic and draconian measures adopted by oppressive regimes to contain the radical Islamists will also exacerbate the threat rather than effectively reducing it. Instances of poverty as well as undemocratic regimes and draconian legislation among many other factors can contribute to the conditio ns fuelling Islamic Militancy.  [13]   American Foreign Policy. American foreign policy is also a significant variable in the surge of Islamic Militancy. Many argue that Islam is a religion of peace Islamic terrorism, however, is a product and response to American foreign policy. This sentiment is reflected upon Americas unconditional support for Israel in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict; the ubiquity of American troops in the Gulf; historical legacy of European colonialism; and terrorist attacks are a cumulative process of humiliating Arabs (for example, displacing Palestinians in their homelands; the Abu Ghraib Prison scandal; torture techniques used by the Bush administration). The rise of non-state actors such as Osama Bin Laden represents the Muslim and Arab worlds rage against American hegemony or simply arrogance/hubris (the so called Liberation Theology). Moreover, the double standards as exercised by the Americans in regards to supporting oppressive regimes so as to secure regional cooperation in the war against terrorism is seen as having veiled intent that the war against terrorism could be a war against Islam. American, it has been argued, should look into the causes and conditions that fuel Islamic rage that is, by reflecting upon its own foreign policies rather than blaming the other for the calamities that had happened thus far.  [14]   Drug Trafficking. Drug trade entered the murky scene of terrorism, in a big way, in Afghanistan during the Taliban operations using Afghanistan Pak axis. Initially, they justified the use of drug business as it was for a sacred cause and even convinced the clergy. However, gradually it became a part and parcel of their activities and drug mafias became big players in the venture and terrorist became synonymous of drug trafficker. Equally, the wide network created by the drug mafia was exploited by the terrorist outfits for their operations. As big money was involved politicians in Afghanistan and Pakistan were easily drawn into vicious circle. Drug trafficking provided the illegitimate money to fuel the Holy War Jihad across the globe. Conclusion Conceivably, future reforms in Islam is more vital than the ideology debate over the character of Islamic past. Kepel in 2002 suggested that Islamist terrorism does not, nor can it produce its intended goals and has become consumed with a fantasy of a world-wide triumph of radical Islam. Understanding the reasons for rise in fundamentalism in Islam and factors contributing to global terrorism, it is neigh important to take concrete measures against terrorism, else, we are likely to inherit a world without peace to the coming generations. Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. 33.29. Quran

E-commerce :: essays research papers

Running head: ECOMMERCE eCommerce The Popularity of Online Auctions Abstract The Popularity of Online Auctions The opportunity to shop from the comfort of ones own home has seen a change like never seen before. Within the span of a few short years, what may have began as an experimental idea has grown to an immensely popular hobby, and in some cases, a means of livelihood, the online auction gathers tremendous response everyday, all day. With the point and click of the mouse, one may bid on an item they may need or just want, and in moments they find that either they are the top bidder or someone else wants it more, and you’re outbid! The excitement of an auction all from the comfort of home. With this opportunity to buy sight unseen also comes the opportunity to be scammed sight unseen as well. There are over 30 million ‘hits’ each month on the online auction sites, and that is opportunity waiting to be taken for those with the criminal intent of defrauding others. However with a little care and caution, one can have a positive experience doing business on an online auction, and each party can leave satisfied with their ‘deal’, whether they are the buyer, the seller, or the conveyance that brought it all together. eCommerce The Popularity of Online Auctions â€Å"Congratulations! This eBay item has successfully ended.† (eBay, retrieved 11 April 2002, Sellers Guide, http://pages.ebay.com/help/sellerguide/after-whatnow.html) Many people each day receive this message in their e-mail box, notifying them that they have won the bid on an item listed with eBayà ¢, for sale to the highest bidder. In fact, online auctions have become so popular, they are gathering multi-billion dollar per year business. Top auction sites, January 2002 Site Unique visitors Site Unique visitors eBay 28.9 million Myitem.com 860,000 Yahoo! Auctions 3.7 million Bidz.com 612,000 uBid.com 3.1 million BuyBidWin.com 487,000 Andale sites 2.2 million PhilTanny.com 279,000 QOOL.com 977,000 SkyAuction.com 262,000 All auctions 32.3 million Note: Usage numbers for individual sites exceed total because duplicate users, those visiting more than one site, have been eliminated. The total does not include Amazon.com Auctions. Source: Jupiter Media Metrix (Mulrean, J., 5 steps to avoiding auction rip-offs, retrieved 12 April 2002 from MSN Money, http://money.msn.com/articles/smartbuy/dollarwise/9013.asping ground for fraud.) In 2000, the eBay community transacted more than $5 billion in annualized gross merchandise sales (value of goods traded on the eBay site). (eBay, retrieved 11 April 2002,Company Overview, http://pages.ebay.com/community/aboutebay/overview/index.html), and for all of 2001, EBay generated revenue of US$748.8 million, representing a 74 percent annual growth. That is serious money by anyone’s standards. "EBay has been profitable nearly since Day One," Morningstar analyst David Kathman told the E-

Book Review: Human Communication as Narration

In perhaps his most important contribution to rhetorical theory and the understanding of human communication, Walter Fisher presents an explanation of his narrative paradigm in Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value and Action. This book essentially elaborates on and refines Fisher’s previous articles on the narrative paradigm and aims to present a more complete explanation of the theory’s roots, as well as its main tenets and relevant applications.Human Communication as Narration begins with an exhaustive examination of the history of narratives and logic, which includes his assertion that the logic by which human communication should be assessed return to the roots of the original meaning of logos: â€Å"story, reason, rationale, conception, discourse, thought† (p. 10). He asserts that Plato and Aristotle transformed the word logos into a specific term that applied only to philosophical/technical discourse, which launched a †Å"historical hegemonic struggle† that has lasted for more than 2,000 years (p. 10).Fisher explains that the positivist, â€Å"rational-world paradigm† that emphasized formal logic and reasoning (p. 58) is improved upon with his view of a more post-modern, ontological foundation where meaning is co-created through less formal structures like stories. In resurrecting the original meaning of logos, grounding his theory in ontology, and classifying human beings as â€Å"Homo narrans† (p. xi) , or storytelling animals, Fisher rejects the notion that technical logic is the only path to truth and knowledge, and argues that, as the ancients believed, all human communication is rational and contains truth and knowledge (p. 0). This more inclusive account of human communication together with the view that all human communication needs to be seen as stories sets the foundation for Fishers’ theory of narratives. In presenting the main points of his narrative theory ov er several chapters, Fisher explains that humans experience and understand life as a series of ongoing narratives, and that these stories are symbolic interpretations of â€Å"aspects of the world that [are] historically and culturally grounded and shaped by human personality† (p. 9). Given that stories are more than just a figure of speech and have the power to both inform and influence, Fisher establishes â€Å"narrative rationality† as a universal logic and means for the assessment for stories that is accessible by nature to all human beings (p. 47). This assessment is tested against narrative â€Å"probability (coherence) and fidelity (truthfulness and reliability)† (p. 47) – in other words, humans come to believe in and act on stories in so much as they relate to and identify with them.Going back to his assertion that human communication doesn’t have to exist in perfect structures of rhetorical arguments, he further explains that all humans po ssess the ability to reason and can therefore both communicate and accept truth as â€Å"good reasons† (p. 105). Perhaps an even better, more succinct explanation of this comes earlier in the book where Fisher states that â€Å"the materials of the narrative paradigm are symbols, signs of consubstantiation, and good reasons [are] the communicative expression of social reality† (p. 5). By including both formal logic and a logic of â€Å"good reasons† in the basis for argument, Fisher’s narrative paradigm contributes to rhetorical theory by expanding the meaning of persuasion just as Burke’s theory of identification did. Since the average person isn’t trained in formal logic, Fisher believed that the logic of good reasons (i. e. common sense), sits above all other persuasive means since it is universal and inherent in all human communication.Fisher goes on to assert that narrative rationality should also be â€Å"the foundation on which a com plete theory of rhetoric needs to be built† (p. 194). In this sense, the selection of stories we tell and come to accept is demonstrative of who we are and what we want others to believe about us. In the final section of his book, Fisher applies his narrative rationality in several real-world case studies including the rhetoric of Ronald Reagan, Death of a Salesman, The Great Gatsby and the philosophical discussion between Socrates and Callicles in Plato’s Gorgias.These examples provide a helpful demonstration of how narrative rationality can be used to assess the coherence, truthfulness and reliability of stories across a wide range of contexts. In conceptualizing and applying narrative rationality, Fisher contributes an important method for the study of narratives in a variety of communication contexts, which is one of the most important contributions he makes to the study of communication. Through Human Communication as Narration, Fisher provided a more accessible, u niversal means for communicating and understanding human truth.Drawing inspiration from the works of Kenneth Burke, Alasdair MacIntyre, Stephen Toulmin and Chaim Perelman, Fisher’s narrative paradigm argues that formal logic and the positivist view are inadequately prepared to account for the motives and values in human communication. He offers a broader explanation that all forms of human communication are driven by and evolve from our inherent need to determine whether an accounting of new knowledge matches up with what we already know.In the 30 years since Human Communication as Narration was first published, scholars and professionals from a wide range of disciplines have applied Fisher’s narrative paradigm in a variety of contexts. Narrative methods for rhetorical analysis and criticism have been used by Barbara Sharf (1990), Hollihan and Riley (1987), and Michael Cornfield (1992), among many others. In 1993, David Mains argued that the time was ripe for a move to ward narrative sociology, which asserted that â€Å"sociology’s phenomena is made up precisely of stories† (p. 2) as well as that sociologists are mainly narrators. The use of narratives as a means for persuasion in advertising and public relations has been widely documented in recent years by Cinzia Bianchi (2011); Barbara Stern, Craig Thompson and Eric Arnould (1998); and Melanie Green (2006). The narrative paradigm has also been deployed in interpersonal communication and organizational communication (Ashcraft & Pacanowsky, 1996). And a large body of research has been dedicated to the study of narratives as a strategy in conflict resolution as well (Gergen & Gergen, 2006; Sandole et al. 2009). These are just a few of the ways in which Fisher’s narrative paradigm still contributes to the understanding of human communication today. But while the narrative paradigm has enjoyed a renaissance of late with new research that refines and extends the theory (Currie, 2 005; Kirkwood, 1992; McClure, 2009; Stroud, 2002), largely due to its growing multi-disciplinary interest as noted above, it has also attracted much criticism. But while these scholars recognized its value, they have also demonstrated that it is not as useful for critical analysis as it aimed to be.Stroud (2002) found issue with the lack of account for contradiction in stories when assessing narrative rationality. Kirkwood (1992) felt that Fisher’s narrative rationality is limiting in that it doesn’t allow for the possibilities of new stories to be accepted and acted upon. He goes on to argue that a â€Å"rhetoric of possibility† presented through narratives can better account for how rhetors challenge people with â€Å"new and unsuspected possibilities of being and action in the world† (Kirkwood, 1992, p. 31).McClure (2009) also specifically argued that the narrative paradigm must also account for the â€Å"inventional possibilities of new narratives, t he rhetorical revision of old narratives, and the appeal and acceptance of improbable narrative accounts† (p. 191). He also asserts that by expanding the role of Burke’s identification, the narrative paradigm can become a more viable theory and method of criticism. While several scholars have both praised and criticized Fisher’s narrative paradigm, the part of his story that related to narrative’s origins, philosophical foundation and relevance to human communication rang true for me.In my study of rhetorical theory I, too, have often felt that the structures of formal argument are too constricting and limiting in their ability to interpret all forms of persuasive communication. When using Fisher’s own narrative rationality to measure the coherence and fidelity of Human Communication as Narration, I find it to be both coherent and true – especially from my viewpoint as a woman living in a post-modern, post-structuralist society who works in t he field of public relations where stories are the very fabric of our communication strategies.And while I recognize the validity of the proposed extensions of his theory by Kirkwood (1992), McClure (2009) and Stroud (2002), I feel they also serve as proof points for the generative power of Fisher’s paradigm in new ways of thinking about stories. References Ashcraft, K. & Pacanowsky, M. (1996). â€Å"A woman’s worst enemy†: Reflections on a narrative of organizational life and female identity. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 24, 217-239. Bianchi, C. (2011). Semiotic approaches to advertising texts and strategies: Narrative, passion, marketing.Semiotica, 183, 243-271. Cornfield, M. (1992). The press and political controversy: The case for narrative analysis. Political Communication, 9, 47-59. Currie, M. (2005). Postmodern narrative theory. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Fisher, W. R. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy o f reason, value and action. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. Gergen, M. & Gergen, K. (2006). Narratives in action. Narrative Inquiry, 16, 112-121. Green, M. (2006). Narratives and cancer communication. Journal of Communication, 56, 163-183.Hollihan, T. & Riley, P. (1987). The rhetorical power of a compelling story. Communication Quarterly, 35, 13-25. Kirkwood, W. G. (1992). Narrative and the rhetoric of possibility. Communication Monographs, 59, 30-47. Maines, D. (1993). Narrative’s moment and sociology’s phenomena: Toward a narrative sociology. The Sociological Quarterly, 34, 17-38. McClure, K. (2009). Resurrecting the narrative paradigm: Identification and the case of Young Earth Creationism. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 39, 189-211. Sandole, D. , Byrne, S. , Sandole-Saroste, I. & Senehi, J. Eds. ). (2009). The handbook of conflict analysis and resolution. Routledge: New York. Sharf, B. (1990). Physician-patient communication as interpersonal rhetoric : A narrative approach. Health Communication, 2, 217-231. Stern, B. , Thompson, C. & Arnould, E. (1998). Narrative analysis of a marketing relationship: The consumer's perspective. Psychology & Marketing, 15, 195-214. Stroud, S. (2002). Multivalent narratives: Extending the narrative paradigm with insights from ancient philosophical thought. Western Journal of Communication, 66, 369-393.

35 Wedding Anniversary Wishes to Bless Married Couples

35 Wedding Anniversary Wishes to Bless Married Couples The decision to get married may be the most significant step you take in your life. It may take a while for you to get adjusted to married life. Marriage is a lifetime commitment. Once you decide to take the plunge, there is no looking back. Weddings are sacrosanct. You promise to cherish your spouse as long as you live. You take a vow to support each other in good and bad times. And you promise to love and be faithful forever. Wedding anniversaries are important milestones, as you count the years that rolled by in marital bliss. But marriage is not a bed of roses. Every couple faces challenges that threaten to tear them apart. When the foundation of marriage is weak, the relationship can crumble to dust. However, some couples rise above these challenges and emerge stronger than ever. Wedding anniversaries celebrate the triumphant years and remind the couple of their blessings. If your friend or relative is celebrating his wedding anniversary, congratulate the husband and wife for their togetherness. Bless them with heartfelt wedding anniversary wishes. Recall the beautiful memories of their wedding day to remind them of their deep love that keeps them going strong year after year. Elizabeth Barrett BrowningTwo human loves make one divine.Dean StanleyA happy marriage is a new beginning of life, a new starting point for happiness and usefulness.Elijah FentonWedded love is founded on esteem.Johann Wolfgang von GoetheThe sum which two married people owe to one another defies calculation. It is an infinite debt, which can only be discharged through all eternity.Eliza CookHark! The merry chimes are pealing,Soft and glad the music swells,Gaily in the night wind stealing,Sweetly sound the wedding bells.George ChapmanMarriage is ever made by destiny.Kahlil GibranYou were born together, and together you shall be forevermore... but let there be spaces in your togetherness. And let the winds of the heavens dance between you.Joseph CampbellWhen you make a sacrifice in marriage, youre sacrificing not to each other but to unity in a relationship.PlautusLet us celebrate the occasion with wine and sweet words.Thomas MooreThere is nothing half so sweet in lifeAs loves young dre am. Sir A. HuntHe is blessed in love alone,Who loves for years and loves but one.William ShakespeareGrace and remembrance be to you both.Honore de BalzacOne should believe in marriage as in the immortality of the soul.Franz Joseph von Munch-BellinghausenTwo souls with but a single thought,Two heart that beat as one.William ShakespeareHonor, riches, marriage-blessingLong continuance, and increasing,Hourly joys be still upon you!Ogden NashTo keep your marriage brimming,With love in the wedding cup,Whenever youre wrong, admit it;Whenever youre right, shut up.Emily BronteWhatever souls are made of, his and mine are the same.HoraceHappy and thrice happy are those who enjoy an uninterrupted union, and whose love, unbroken by any sour complaints, shall not dissolve until the last day of their existence.William ShakespeareHeaven give you many, many merry days.Rainer Maria RilkeA good marriage is that in which each appoints the other guardian of his solitude.Sam KeenWe come to love not by finding the perfect person, but by learning to see an imperfect person perfectly. MiltonHail, wedded love, mysterious law; true source of human happiness.William ShakespeareNow join hands, and with your hands your hearts.John DonneCome live with me and be my love,And we will some new pleasures proveOf golden sands and crystal brooks,With silken lines and silver hooks.Karl FuchsIt takes two special people,To make a loving pair.Thereà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s a joy just being around you,A feeling I love to share.Barbra StreisandWhy does a woman work ten years to change a mans habits and then complain that hes not the man she married?Jean RostandA married couple are well suited when both partners usually feel the need for a quarrel at the same time.Wellins CalcottIn the choice of a wife, we ought to make use of our ears, and not our eyes.Phyllis DillerWhatever you may look like, marry a man your own age as your beauty fades, so will his eyesight.William Makepeace ThackerayBad husbands will make bad wives.Kyran PittmanIf you can hang in there through minor and major differe nces of opinion, through each others big and little screw-ups, year after year, you come to understand that the person you married is really, terribly flawed. There isnt a human being you can hang out with, day in and day out, for over a decade and not come to the same inescapable realization. Wellins CalcottA single life is doubtless preferable to a married one, where prudence and affection do not accompany the choice; but where they do, there is no terrestrial happiness equal to the married state.Phyllis DillerA bachelor is a guy who never made the same mistake once.Chloe DanielsA marriage is like a salad: the man has to know how to keep his tomatoes on the top.J. R. EwingMarriage is like these bonbons. You never know what youre getting until youre right in the middle of it.